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Illuminating the Brain | The Vielight Neuro’s Energy Footprint | Full Transcranial-Intranasal Footprint

Vielight Main — Fri, 05 Sep 2025 21:05:26 +0000

What “energy footprint” means

When light energy enters the head through a single point, it doesn’t stay as a tiny dot. As it passes through skin, skull, the fluid around the brain (CSF), and cortex, multiple scattering events spread and redirect the beam. The resulting energy footprint is broad, overlapping fields of light fluence.

The Vielight Neuro 4’s geometry is engineered to intentionally overlap these broadened fields over Default Mode Network (DMN) nodes with the highest independently measured irradiance in commercially available brain photobiomodulation devices, while still bathing the wider cortex. This is why five VieLED modules can produce an effect that is effectively full‑transcranial, with a focus on the DMN.

Plain‑English summary: Five specialized LEDs ≠ five dots. Physics turns five dots into five large, overlapping halos that cover the cortex, with positioning that accentuates DMN hubs.

The Vielight Neuro Pro 2, with twelve higher-powered VieLED modules, produces an even stronger intensity with the ability to target more networks individually for precision-based photobiomodulation.

Why Five Vie-LEDs provide full Transcranial Coverage

A CMOS-based camera was used to detect and translate 810nm (invisible to the human eye) fluence through a human skull.

https://www.vielight.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Vielight-Neuro-Energy-Footprint-Demonstration-Neuro-4-Calvaria.mp4

1) Skull scattering amplifies coverage. The skull’s (bone) mineralized matrix is highly uneven. Incoming photons undergo Mie‑dominant scattering, so a narrow beam entering bone emerges as a wide-spread halo with a concentration on contact points.

2) Skin/scalp. The scalp consists of collagen fibers, fat, and small blood vessels—each of these components absorb, scatter and refract light energy.

3) Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) scatters photons. The liquid which the brain floats in, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) also scatters light energy, helping spread light energy sideways, so it fans out over the tops of the brain’s folds and into nearby areas.

4) Overlapping light halos → whole‑cortex coverage. The Vielight Neuro 4’s VieLEDs are strategically positioned so their broadened halos overlap across the brain. The result is full coverage but with a focus on the Default Mode Network (DMN).

DMN 1

Figure 1: The DMN in cerebral brain scans in different mental states.

DMN‑Focused Geometry (With full transcranial PBM)

A dysfunctional Default Mode Network is linked with psychiatric problems like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, etc. In traumatic brain injuries (TBI), the DMN is often disrupted—its connections can become weaker or noisy, and the brain struggles to switch off the DMN and switch on task networks, which maps to brain-fog, slowed thinking, fatigue, and problems with attention and memory. Which is why improving functional connectivity of the DMN is so important in research.

For creativity, the DMN supplies the raw material—spontaneous associations, memory recombination, daydreaming—while the salience and executive networks pick, refine, and test those ideas; the healthiest pattern isn’t a constantly high DMN, but flexible switching between DMN and task networks, which predicts better divergent thinking and creative output.

The Vielight Neuro 4’s layout concentrates on these hubs so the diffuse halos focus where the DMN nodes reside, while still spreading energy into frontal, temporal, and lateral parietal cortices. This DMN‑weighted strategy aligns with the Neuro 4’s intent to support large‑scale network dynamics while maintaining whole‑brain coverage.

Bottom line: It may look like “just five super powerful LEDs,” but their collective energy footprint blankets the cortex and leans into the DMN where hubs are densest.

https://www.vielight.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Vielight-Neuro-Energy-Footprint-Demonstration-Neuro-Pro-2.mp4

The Neuro Pro 2: Higher Intensity & Programmable Network Targeting

The Vielight Neuro Pro 2 extends the principles described above by combining 12 VieLED modules with higher‑intensity output with module‑level control to realize stronger full‑transcranial PBM with network‑specific emphasis.

Higher irradiance & total power: Twelve patented VieLEDs provide the highest surface irradiance in the industry, creating ample headroom for dense hair, thicker calvaria while preserving safety via app‑controlled duty cycles and session timing.
12 programmable, flexible modules: Independently activate, sequence, and synchronize modules to target any cortical territory or all‑network coverage. Patterns can be designed to stack energy over selected large‑scale networks (e.g., DMN, dorsal attention, salience, frontoparietal, sensorimotor).
Personalized & automated neuromodulation: The Neuro Pro app supports guided presets as well as deep manual control (e.g., frequency selection, phase relationships, duty cycle, cross‑frequency coupling). These capabilities enable personalized protocols and can be orchestrated into automated, AI‑assisted workflows for network‑specific neuromodulation and repeatable routines.
Full‑brain continuity with intranasal channel: Superior to the Neuro 4, the Neuro Pro 2 integrates two intranasal pathways to leverage the porous, thin cribriform plate to reach ventral brain structures .

TL;DR: The Neuro Pro 2 keeps the full‑transcranial, network‑aware energy footprint concept and adds more power and programmable control so you can shape where, when, and how energy is delivered across brain networks.

https://www.vielight.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Vielight-Neuro-Energy-Footprint-Demonstration-Intranasal.mp4

The Intranasal Channel: Reaching Ventral Brain Structures

Transcranial delivery is complemented by an intranasal module. Here, the cribriform plate – the thinnest, porous portion of the skull, which connects the olfactory bulb with the olfactory nerves creates a naturally porous, short optical path to ventral frontal territories at the brain’s base, easily enabling light energy to pass through. This underside access helps address deep/ventral targets that are inaccessible transcranially.

Transcranial (tPBM) + Intranasal (iPBM) brain photobiomodulation = Intranasal-transcranial PBM (itPBM) and is unique to Vielight.

Pathway to the Olfactory Bulb and vmPFC

The olfactory bulbs sit just above the nasal cavity on the thin, perforated cribriform plate. Positioning the intranasal emitter near the nasal roof creates a short path to the bulbs and along the olfactory tracts.

Just behind and above this region lies the ventromedial/orbitofrontal prefrontal cortex on the underside of the frontal lobes, so the intranasal route offers a practical doorway toward ventral frontal areas.

In practice, it complements transcranial delivery—providing dorsal‑to‑ventral continuity with Neuro 4, and higher‑intensity, programmable timing with Neuro Pro 2.

Takeaway: The intranasal channel is not a side feature—it is a purpose‑built optical route through the porous, thin cribriform plate to reach the olfactory bulbs and ventral/medial prefrontal cortex, completing Neuro 4/Pro 2’s full‑brain energy footprint from the underside.

Seeing is Believing: CMOS Smartphone Photonic Detection

To make the diffusion concept visible, we ran simple visual experiments using a CMOS smartphone camera and a real human calvaria (see video below):

Setup: The Vielight Neuro 4 and Vielight Neuro Pro 2 are positioned below a real human skull’s calvaria, which rests on top of it. A smartphone camera, sensitive enough to detect relative near‑infrared light despite typical IR filtering – captured trans‑bone light patterns.
Observation: Each VieLED produces a vibrant, wide intensity field, not a narrow spot. Overlapping fields were evident as brighter, blended regions.
Interpretation: The relative intensity maps match expectations from multiple scattering and interface redirection across bone, meningeal, and CSF boundaries.

What this is and isn’t: The smartphone method is a qualitative, relative visualization – useful for pattern‑tracking and comparative intensity across positions. It is not a calibrated dosimetry system and doesn’t replace formal optical modeling or in‑tissue fluence measurements.

A Quick Tour of the Physics (In Brief)

Scalp & skull: High reduced scattering and modest absorption broaden and attenuate incident beams, creating diffuse halos.
Dura/arachnoid/CSF: While CSF is comparatively low‑scattering, interfaces and surface irregularities (arachnoid, trabeculae, sulcal geometry) redirect and redistribute light, aiding lateral spread across adjacent gyri.
Gray matter: Additional forward‑biased scattering continues to smooth and widen the footprint within cortex.

Together, these layers transform point‑like sources into distributed fields that can be stacked where we want emphasis (e.g., DMN hubs) while maintaining broad coverage elsewhere.

Limitations & Next Steps

Qualitative visualization: CMOS camera capture provides relative intensity, influenced by sensor IR filtering and auto‑exposure. Future work can add spectral characterization and fixed‑exposure protocols.
Heterogeneity: Skull thickness, diploë content, sinus cavities, and CSF thickness vary across individuals, subtly reshaping footprints. Ongoing Monte Carlo modeling and in‑vivo NIRS/NIRI can refine priors.
Dosimetry bridge: Linking surface power, fluence rate at depth, and biologic response remains an active engineering task. Calibrated phantoms and paired imaging can tighten these relationships.

Conclusion

The Vielight Neuro VieLED architecture is deceptively simple: by leveraging tissue optics, it yields an effectively full‑transcranial energy footprint with a purposeful DMN bias. The intranasal channel completes the map by accessing ventral forebrain across the porous cribriform plate, creating a complementary dorsal‑to‑ventral pathway. The calvaria‑based visualizations make the physics tangible—five LEDs, one brain‑wide footprint, with DMN‑centered emphasis by design.

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What is Vie-LED® Technology? The Importance of Irradiance

Vielight Main — Sat, 21 Jun 2025 00:42:36 +0000

At the heart of Vielight’s innovation lies a proprietary engineering breakthrough: Vie-LED® technology. Designed specifically for transcranial and intranasal photobiomodulation (PBM), Vie-LED is not just another light-emitting diode system. It’s a meticulously optimized delivery mechanism that enables high irradiance output with minimal heat generation, ensuring both therapeutic potency and user safety.

High Irradiance, Minimal Heat – A Rare Engineering Achievement

In photobiomodulation, irradiance (measured in milliwatts per square centimeter, mW/cm²) is one of the most critical parameters for therapeutic efficacy — especially when targeting the brain, where light must pass through multiple layers, including scalp, skull, and cerebrospinal fluid.

While many devices boast numerous LEDs, more does not mean better if the light energy does not penetrate the skull due to weak irradiance. Vie-LED® modules are engineered to emit targeted, high-power light intensities, reaching therapeutic thresholds needed for neurostimulation – typically 200–300 mW/cm², depending on the model.

Crucially, this is achieved without overheating, thanks to proprietary internal design features that include:

Efficient heat sinks
Precision current regulation
Tight spectral control at optimal therapeutic wavelengths (e.g., 810 nm for deep penetration)

This sets Vielight apart in a field where high power often comes at the cost of discomfort or safety risk.

Visual Proof: Near-Infrared Light Penetrating the Skull with Vielight Neuro 4

The Vielight Neuro has the deepest penetration in the brain photobiomodulation field. The demonstration video below with a real human skull and the Vielight Neuro clearly demonstrates 810nm light energy with an irradiance of 250 mW/cm2 clearly passing through the skull’s calvaria.

The Vielight Neuro features proprietary Vie-LED technology—highly specialized, custom-engineered LEDs designed to deliver optimal irradiance for brain stimulation without producing excess heat. To ensure safety and efficiency, we’ve intentionally limited the device’s power density to 50% of its maximum potential output. Even still, it features the highest irradiance in the field of brain photobiomodulation according to independent 3rd party tests.

What About Devices With More LEDs?

Helmet brands often highlight a higher number of diodes. However, these typically operate at much lower irradiance levels — sometimes as low as 6–15 mW/cm², according to independent lab tests (e.g., PBM Foundation 2024 irradiance comparison).

MegaLab and Optronic Lab, photonics engineering firms, conducted two mutually exclusive tests with correlative results:

But why does that matter?

In brain PBM, light attenuation is exponential, only a fraction reaches cortical neurons. Without sufficient irradiance at the surface, the actual dose delivered to the brain tissue is negligible, regardless of how many LEDs are used. Think of it like trying to light up a room using dozens of flashlights with dying batteries, brightness matters more than quantity.

Clinically Validated — Backed by Over 20 Published Clinical Studies

Vie-LED is not just an engineering concept; it’s the engine powering over 50 published or ongoing clinical studies, including:

Double-blind trials on cognitive function and dementia
Research into concussion recovery and mental health
Studies with military, university, and hospital collaborators globally

This robust body of research reflects the consistency and reliability of the Vie-LED output profile — something essential for replicable results in clinical settings.

Why Vie-LED Matters for You

When selecting a photobiomodulation device, scientific precision, power delivery, and safety should outweigh superficial features like LED count or flashy casing. Vie-LED delivers on what matters most:

✅ Sufficient irradiance for therapeutic effect
✅ Low heat for safety and comfort
✅ Rigorous clinical validation
✅ Designed specifically for the brain and intranasal regions

Whether you’re a clinician, athlete, or health-conscious individual, Vie-LED is a testament to purposeful engineering, not mass manufacturing.

Explore the science. Feel the difference. Trust the technology.
This is Vie-LED®. This is Vielight.

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Are Neurons extra sensitive to light energy?

Vielight Main — Fri, 30 May 2025 14:27:13 +0000

Are Neurons Extra Sensitive to Light Energy?

The idea that light can influence the brain isn’t science fiction, it’s science. In recent years, the field of photobiomodulation (PBM) has uncovered how light energy, particularly in the red and near-infrared spectrum, can interact with our cells in surprisingly therapeutic ways. But are neurons, our brain’s most vital and complex cells, especially sensitive to this kind of energy?

What is Photobiomodulation?

Photobiomodulation refers to the use of specific wavelengths of light to stimulate cellular function, most notably through mitochondrial mechanisms. The most common wavelengths used are in the red (600–700 nm) and near-infrared (760–1100 nm) range. These wavelengths penetrate biological tissues and are absorbed by intracellular photoreceptors, particularly cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) in mitochondria, leading to increased ATP production, modulation of reactive oxygen species, and changes in gene expression [1].

Why Neurons Might Be More Sensitive

Neurons are highly metabolically active and rely heavily on mitochondrial function. Since they are post-mitotic and do not easily regenerate, their health is tightly linked to mitochondrial performance. This may explain why they respond especially well to light stimulation.

High mitochondrial density: Neurons have a large number of mitochondria to support their energy needs, especially in synapses [2].
Vulnerability to oxidative stress: The brain uses about 20% of the body’s oxygen but comprises only ~2% of its mass. PBM’s ability to regulate redox balance offers potential neuroprotection [3].
Modulation of neuroinflammation: Light energy has been shown to reduce inflammatory markers and glial activity, both of which affect neuron health [4].

Supporting Evidence

1. Improved Cognitive Function

A randomized controlled trial found that near-infrared PBM applied to the prefrontal cortex improved attention and memory in healthy adults [5].

2. Neuroprotection After Injury

In rodent models of traumatic brain injury, PBM preserved neurons, reduced glial scarring, and stimulated regeneration [6].

3. Functional Imaging Studies

EEG and fMRI studies have shown increased brain activity and connectivity after PBM, suggesting direct effects on neural networks [7].

4. Applications in Neurodegenerative Disorders

Early human studies indicate benefits for Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s patients, including improved mood, memory, and sleep [8].

Can Light Really Reach the Brain?

The human skull filters out much light, but near-infrared wavelengths, especially in the 810–1070 nm range, can penetrate to the cortex. Studies estimate that enough light reaches cortical tissue to stimulate a biological response, especially when higher-power or pulsed devices are used [9].

Visual Proof: Near-Infrared Light Penetrating the Skull with Vielight Neuro 4

Conclusion

So, are neurons extra sensitive to light energy? Current research strongly suggests yes. Due to their high energy demands and mitochondrial density, neurons are well-positioned to benefit from photobiomodulation. Whether enhancing cognitive performance, protecting against injury, or slowing neurodegeneration, PBM appears to offer a non-invasive, promising method to support Brain wellness.

References

Hamblin, M.R. (2016). Shining light on the head: Photobiomodulation for brain disorders. BBA Clinical, 6, 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbacli.2016.09.002
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Sies, H. (2015). Oxidative stress: A concept in redox biology and medicine. Redox Biology, 4, 180–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2015.01.002
Salehpour, F., et al. (2018). Transcranial Photobiomodulation Therapy: A Novel Method for Neuroenhancement. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B, 183, 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2018.04.007
Barrett, D.W., & Gonzalez-Lima, F. (2013). Transcranial infrared laser stimulation produces beneficial cognitive and emotional effects in humans. Neuroscience, 230, 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.11.016
Xuan, W., et al. (2014). Transcranial low-level laser therapy improves neurological performance in traumatic brain injury in mice. PLOS ONE, 9(1), e86264. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0086264
Tian, F., et al. (2016). Transcranial laser stimulation improves human cerebral oxygenation. Lasers in Surgery and Medicine, 48(4), 343–349. https://doi.org/10.1002/lsm.22470
Chao, L.L. (2019). Home Photobiomodulation Treatments on Cognitive and Behavioral Function in Dementia. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease Reports, 3(1), 241–255. https://doi.org/10.3233/ADR-190135
https://www.vielight.com/blog/irradiance-the-key-to-effective-brain-photobiomodulation/

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Vielight Vagus: Scientific Foundations and Applications of Vagus Nerve Stimulation

Vielight Main — Mon, 12 May 2025 19:08:51 +0000

Introduction

The vagus nerve plays a central role in autonomic regulation, inflammation control, mood modulation, and overall homeostasis. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a promising approach for enhancing autonomic balance, reducing systemic inflammation, improving mental health, and supporting neuroplasticity.

The Vielight Vagus presents an innovative, non-invasive alternative using photobiomodulation (PBM) to target the cervical vagus nerve branches with pulsed near-infrared light. Controlled clinical studies are being planned to evaluate its efficacy.

Disclaimer

The Vielight Vagus is marketed as a low-risk general wellness device without medical claims. This white paper provides biological and mechanistic context for its design.

Device Overview

Target: Bilateral cervical vagus nerve branches under the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscles
Delivery: Hands-free headset for consistent anatomical placement
Website: Vielight Vagus Device
Patent: Patent Information

Early Experimental Outcomes

Experiments using 810 nm PBM at 50 mW/cm² demonstrated a notable increase in vagal tone at 100 Hz pulse frequency, aligning with results from electrical VNS studies (Sclocco et al., 2020; Yokota et al., 2022).

Scientific Rationale and Mechanisms of Action

Foundational Mechanisms

PBM stimulates afferent vagal fibers via mitochondrial activation, calcium signaling, and ROS modulation [Hamblin, 2016; Karu, 1999].

Distinct from Electrical Stimulation

PBM does not rely on electrical depolarization but works through photoactivation of ion channels and metabolic support [Zhang et al., 2024; Yan et al., 2025; Farazi et al., 2024].

Potentially Shared Outcomes

NTS Activation: fMRI studies show cervical VNS activates the NTS, DMNV, and PAG [Yakunina et al., 2020; Benarroch, 2012]
HRV Modulation: Non-invasive VNS improves HRV, a marker for mental health resilience [Bretherton et al., 2022; Shaffer & Ginsberg, 2017]

Other Advantages of the Vielight Vagus

100 Hz Pulsing: Aligned with gamma frequencies for cognitive support [Herrmann et al., 2010; Yokota et al., 2022]

Helpful PBM Mechanisms of Action

Mitochondrial upregulation via cytochrome c oxidase
Increased ATP and nitric oxide release
Modulation of calcium channels and ion transport
Systemic anti-inflammatory effects

Future VNS Applications for PBM Investigation

HRV and autonomic balance enhancement
Stress and anxiety support

Conclusion

The Vielight Vagus device introduces a next-generation approach to non-invasive VNS. By combining the benefits of photobiomodulation with cervical vagus nerve stimulation, it offers a safe, comfortable, and effective alternative to traditional VNS methods. Its design supports home-based clinical research and HRV enhancement with minimal user burden. Vielight’s upcoming investigations aim to validate and expand its potential therapeutic applications.

References

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Badran, B. W., et al. (2019). The short and long-term effects of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation on heart rate variability in healthy adults: A randomized sham-controlled trial. Brain Stimulation, 11(5), 947–955.
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Bonaz, B., Sinniger, V., & Pellissier, S. (2019). Vagus Nerve Stimulation at the Interface of Brain-Gut Interactions. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine, 9(8), a034199.
Bremner, J. D., Gurel, N. Z., Jiao, Y., Wittbrodt, M. T., Levantsevych, O. M., … Pearce, B. D. (2020). Transcutaneous vagal nerve stimulation blocks stress-induced activation of Interleukin-6 and interferon-γ in posttraumatic stress disorder: A double-blind, randomized, sham-controlled trial. Brain, behavior, & immunity – health, 9, 100138.
Bretherton, B., Atkinson, L., Murray, A., Clancy, J., Deuchars, S. A., & Deuchars, J. (2022). Effects of transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation on heart rate variability: A systematic review. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 16, 913159.
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Evancho, A., Do, M., Fortenberry, D., Billings, R., Sartayev, A., & Tyler, W. J. (2024). Vagus nerve stimulation in Parkinson’s disease: a scoping review of animal studies and human subjects research. NPJ Parkinson’s disease, 10(1), 199.
Farazi, N., Salehi-Pourmehr, H., Farajdokht, F., Mahmoudi, J., & Sadigh-Eteghad, S. (2024). Photobiomodulation combination therapy as a new insight in neurological disorders: a comprehensive systematic review. BMC neurology, 24(1), 101.
Hamblin, M. R. (2016). Mechanisms and applications of the anti-inflammatory effects of photobiomodulation. AIMS Biophysics, 3(3), 337–361.
Herrmann, C. S., Munk, M. H. J., & Engel, A. K. (2010). Cognitive functions of gamma-band activity: Memory match and utilization. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(8), 347–355.
Johnson, R. L., & Wilson, C. G. (2018). A review of vagus nerve stimulation as a therapeutic intervention. Journal of Inflammation Research, 11, 203–213.
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Is 810nm or 1064nm (1070nm) better for brain photobiomodulation?

Vielight Main — Mon, 17 Feb 2025 04:56:14 +0000

Is the 810 nm or 1064 nm (1070 nm) wavelength better?

Across all age groups, the 810nm wavelength has shown to have a deeper and stronger energy disposition than 1064 nm (1070 nm) in a dosimetry study by Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry and several other universities. Even though 1064 nm (1070 nm) scatters less, it is absorbed more by water molecules, which are abundant in human tissue, especially the brain (70-80% water).

In terms of cellular effects, 810 nm has a stronger effect on mitochondria because photonic absorption by cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) peaks around 810nm and declines as the wavelength gets longer. Direct CCO photoexcitation is weaker at 1064 nm and 1070 nm compared to 810 nm because they are off-peak for mitochondria’s CCO absorption, which peaks around 810 nm.

On the other hand, 1064 nm (1070 nm) has a stronger effect on calcium ion channels, which 810 nm does not have a strong effect on.

The rest of this article, complete with science references, expands more on the differences, covering well-studied biophysics-based biological effects.

Does 810 nm or 1064 nm (1070nm) penetrate deeper into the brain?

According to a transcranial brain photobiomodulation (PBM) study by Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, the 810nm wavelength has been found to be superior to other wavelengths, which includes higher wavelengths in the 1070nm range for penetration and dosimetry.

According to this study by Harvard Medical School, the order of penetration and dosimetry effectiveness is:

810 nm – consistently highest across all age groups and regions
850 nm and 1064 nm – next most effective in most cases
670 nm and 980 nm – lesser deposition overall

This Harvard study is also supported by another brain PBM dosimetry study by leading Chinese universities, comparing 660 nm, 810 nm, 880 nm and 1064 nm. They discovered that the distribution of photon fluence at 660 and 810 nm within the brain was much wider and deeper than 980 and 1064 nm.

The distribution of photon fluence at 660 nm, 810 nm, 980 nm and 1064 nm. Wang P, Li T. “Which wavelength is optimal for transcranial low-level laser stimulation?” J. Biophotonics. 2019; 12:e201800173. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbio.201800173

The differences in dosimetry are supported by a well-established biological principle, the body’s first optical window. While, the 1064 and 1070nm wavelengths are longer and scatter less, they are more strongly absorbed by water, which is abundant in biological tissues, especially the human. The brain consists of 70-80% water, and floats in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) while the rest of the human body is approximately 60% water. This makes wavelengths like 1064 nm and 1070 nm particularly susceptible to water absorption within the brain.

This increased absorption by water can lead to reduced photonic availability and tissue penetration despite the longer wavelength, which the Harvard Medical study and Peking Medical University study reveal. These studies indicate that 810nm has a higher dosimetry than 1064 nm and by extension, 1070 nm.

The near infrared window or body’s optical window. Image source: Wang, Erica & Kaur, Ramanjot & Fierro, Manuel & Austin, Evan & Jones, Linda & Jagdeo, Jared. (2019). Safety and penetration of light into the brain. 10.1016/B978-0-12-815305-5.00005-1.

Water Absorption: Light absorption by water increases significantly beyond ~950 nm, and water is abundant in biological tissue. At 1064 nm, absorption by water becomes substantial, which attenuates the light more than at 810 nm. This increased absorption reduces the effective depth of penetration, especially for energy reaching specific chromophores like cytochrome c oxidase (CCO).
Cytochrome c Oxidase (CCO) Absorption: Mitochondria’s CCO’s absorption spectrum peaks around 810 nm, with a notable decrease in absorption beyond 1000 nm. This means that 810 nm light is more readily absorbed by CCO compared to 1070 nm.

Visual Proof: Near-Infrared Light Penetrating the Skull with Vielight Neuro 4

The Vielight Neuro delivers the deepest tissue penetration among brain photobiomodulation devices. In the demonstration video below with the Vielight Neuro, 810 nm near-infrared light—emitted at an irradiance of 250 mW/cm²—can be clearly seen penetrating through the calvaria of a real human skull. This highlights the exceptional transcranial performance of the Vielight Neuro and validates the wavelength’s well-documented ability to reach cortical tissue.

Differences in cellular effects between 810nm and 1070nm

810nm has a stronger effect on mitochondria, cytochrome C oxidase (CCO)

The 810nm wavelength is well-known for its strong interaction with cytochrome c oxidase (CCO), a key enzyme in the mitochondrial respiratory chain. By enhancing the activity of CCO, the 810nm wavelength increases ATP production, reduces oxidative stress, and modulates reactive oxygen species (ROS). These effects are crucial for cellular energy metabolism, neuroprotection, and the promotion of cell survival.

1064 nm and 1070nm has a stronger effect on heat-sensitive ion channels

On the other hand, wavelengths beyond 900nm, such as the 1064nm and 1070nm wavelengths have a weaker effect on mitochondrial CCO but a more direct effect on heat-sensitive ion channels, due to its potential to cause localized heating. Activation of these channels can lead to increased calcium influx, which is crucial for various cellular processes, including neurotransmitter release, gene expression, and neurogenesis.

The effects of red to NIR light energy on mitochondria Ref: Original: “Basic Photomedicine”, Ying-Ying Huang, Pawel Mroz and Michael R. Hamblin, Harvard Medical School. Current design: Vielight In

Mitochondrial Activation

810nm Wavelength:

The 810nm wavelength is particularly effective in targeting cytochrome c oxidase, which is a critical component of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. This wavelength is more efficiently absorbed by cytochrome c oxidase, leading to a robust activation of the mitochondrial respiration process. As a result, there is an increase in ATP production, which supplies energy to cells and supports various cellular functions. The 810nm wavelength is especially effective in reaching superficial and cortical brain regions, promoting enhanced cellular metabolism and function in these areas.^[2]

1064 nm and 1070nm Wavelengths:

The 1064 nm and 1070 nm wavelengths, while still within the near-infrared (NIR) spectrum, does not interact with cytochrome c oxidase as effectively as the 810nm wavelength. The absorption by mitochondrial chromophores decreases significantly as the wavelength increases beyond 810nm.^[5] Consequently, the 1070nm wavelength has a reduced effect on mitochondrial activation when compared to 810nm. Instead, the 1070nm wavelength might exert its effects through other mechanisms, such as potential thermal effects and heat/light ion gated channels.

Neurogenesis

810 nm Wavelength:

At the cellular level, the 810nm wavelength has shown considerable efficacy in promoting cortical neurogenesis—the process by which new neurons are formed in the brain. This wavelength is also known for its anti-inflammatory effects, which can help reduce neuroinflammation and support the brain’s healing processes. The 810nm wavelength is well-suited for applications targeting the outer layers of the brain, where it can stimulate cellular repair mechanisms, reduce oxidative stress, and promote overall Brain wellness.

Flowchart of Differences in Cellular Mechanisms:

1064/1070 nm → water-mediated microheating → TRP gating/membrane-capacitance effects → Ca²⁺ influx.
810 nm → CCO-mediated mitochondrial signaling → downstream Ca²⁺ effects.

Why mitochondria absorbs 810 nm more than 1064 nm (1070nm)

1. Spectral absorption properties of cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) within mitochondria

Cytochrome c oxidase within mitochondria has distinct absorption bands in the visible red (~660 nm) and near-infrared (810 nm) regions. Studies consistently show that absorption drops off as you shift to longer NIR wavelengths around the 1000 nm range like 1064 nm (1070nm).
The absorption bands of CCO become much weaker at wavelengths greater than 900 nm, which suggests that alternative chromophores must exist significantly.

2. Reduced photon availability at 1064 nm (1070 nm)

At ~1064 nm (1070nm), water (the dominant tissue component) is absorbed significantly versus 810 nm. This leads to greater attenuation (loss) of photons before they can reach and excite CCO.

Why calcium ion channels absorb more 1064 nm (1070nm) versus 810 nm

Calcium channels themselves don’t meaningfully “absorb” 1064 nm light. What happens at ~1064–1070 nm is mainly photothermal coupling – water is absorbed significantly at longer NIR wavelengths (> 1000 nm), producing tiny, rapid temperature rises that gate heat-sensitive TRP calcium channels (e.g., TRPV1/2/4) and/or change membrane capacitance, which in turn drives Ca²⁺ influx.

By contrast, 810 nm couples primarily to cytochrome-c-oxidase (CCO) with much weaker water heating, so Ca²⁺ effects there are usually downstream of mitochondrial signaling, not direct channel gating.

Research validation of 810nm LEDs vs lasers

A recent study on vascular hemodynamics and cytochrome c oxidase redox activity (not on the brain, but on arms) by the Department of Bioengineering, University of Texas at Arlington examined the effects of different wavelengths within this range with

Lasers (800-1064nm | 250 mW/cm² )
810nm LED (135 mW/cm²)

Results

The 810 nm LED was able to create significant stimulations on vascular hemodynamic oxygenation and CCO redox metabolism despite the LED having a lower irradiance (≈135 mW/cm²)
The dose-dependent trajectory by the 810 nm LED was similar to that by the 800 nm laser.
The LED-triggered increases in Δ[oxCCO] remained at the elevated level without a returning tendency at least during the 5 min post-PBM period. In contrast, the increased Δ[oxCCO] by the 1064 nm laser started returning to the baseline immediately after the cease of the laser.

These findings are encouraging for us – our Vielight Neuro’s rear 810nm LED transcranial diodes generate ≈200-300 mW/cm², which surpasses the power density of ≈135 mW/cm² used in the study. It underscores our commitment to fewer well-placed but sufficiently powerful diodes vs many weaker diodes.

An important takeaway is the importance of irradiance values (mW/cm²) in this study.

Wavelength alone isn’t enough – irradiance matters.

Irradiance—also referred to as power density or light intensity – is a measure of how much light energy reaches a surface per unit area, typically expressed in milliwatts per square centimeter (mW/cm²). In photobiomodulation (PBM), including brain PBM, irradiance determines how much photonic power is delivered to the tissue.

While using an effective wavelength (such as 810 nm, 1064 nm, or 1070 nm) is essential for targeting chromophores like cytochrome c oxidase, the biological response and penetration depth depends just as much on irradiance. Without sufficient power density, even the correct wavelength may fail to penetrate tissue effectively or trigger meaningful cellular effects. Low irradiance can result in sub-therapeutic penetration and doses, while excessively high irradiance may lead to phototoxicity or energy wastage.

In a published review study of over 2133 brain photobiomodulation studies, from which 97 studies were included, the average irradiance or power density was around 250 mW/cm²

As a point of comparison, the average surface irradiance of near-infrared (NIR) light in natural sunlight is approximately 45 mW/cm² – a helpful benchmark when evaluating PBM device output.

In short, optimal photobiomodulation requires both the right wavelength and the right irradiance to reach the target tissue and activate mitochondrial responses.

Key Concepts:

The NIR spectrum of sunlight has an average irradiance or surface power density of 45 mW/cm²
Afternoon sunlight is free. To provide a meaningful therapeutic advantage, brain photobiomodulation devices must deliver higher irradiance levels than the NIR range in sunlight, ensuring benefits beyond what can be achieved through standard sunlight exposure.
Sunlight contains harmful UV rays within 100-400nm range. Brain photobiomodulation devices only emit beneficial light energy within the 810-1100nm range.

A Comparative Snapshot

In a 2024 systematic review that screened 2,133 records and included 97 brain-PBM studies, reported power densities typically clustered around ~250 mW/cm² (especially under physiological conditions).

This is a snapshot comparison of independently measured irradiance by photonics labs by the PBM Foundation between commercial devices with the 810nm wavelength and the 1064 nm, 1070nm wavelengths:

Data Source: The PBM Foundation’s Device Testing Portal ( Link 1 | Link 2 )

Irradiance / Power Density Comparison

Vie-LED technology is unique and is engineered to generate a laser-like irradiance profile but with the safety of LEDs.

The PBM Foundation benchmarked the Vielight Neuro 3 against two PBM helmets, the Suyzeko NIR helmet and Neuronic Neuradiant twice, as case studies for their testing program to standardize irradiance reporting.

MegaLab and Optronic Lab, photonics engineering firms, conducted the tests:

When compared against the irradiance of peak natural sunlight (which is free) our Vielight Neuro generates 200-300% the irradiance of sunlight without the negative side effects of UV rays. The tested Neuronic and Suyzeko helmets generated less than 12% of sunlight’s peak irradiance.

A 2024 systematic review that screened 2,133 records and included 97 brain PBM studies reports that irradiance (power density) was typically ~250 mW/cm². Which implies that the Neuronic and Suzyeko helmets generated less than 5% of the average irradiance analyzed over 97 brain PBM studies. The Vielight Neuro slightly exceeds the irradiance used in these studies, which included lasers.

Source	Independently measured irradiance	Manufacturer	% of Typical Brain-PBM Irradiance (≈250 mW/cm²)
Vielight Neuro (Vielight)	180-350 mW/cm²	Vielight, Canada	80–160%
Neuradiant 1070 (Neuronic)	≈9 mW/cm²	Suyzeko, China (Private-labelled)	≈4%
Suyzeko PBM Helmet (Suyzeko)	5 mW/cm²	Suyzeko, China	3%
Natural Sunlight	100 mW/cm²	Free	40%

Number of published clinical studies

Vielight technology is featured in the most published research by a significant margin for the reasons above.

Be cautious of companies attributing research conducted with Vielight devices or other devices as attainable to their own.

Brain photobiomodulation is parameter-specific and our Vie-LED technology generates a unique laser-like profile and an industry-leading irradiance.

The table below is a benchmark studies published comparison against other random PBM helmets.

Technology	Independently measured wavelength	Research	Manufacturer	Medical Grade
Vielight Neuro (Vielight)	810nm	20 published (17 ongoing)	Vielight, Canada	Yes
Neuradiant 1070 (Neuronic)	1059nm	2 published	Suyzeko, China (Private-labelled)	No
Suyzeko PBM Helmet (Suyzeko)	811nm	1 published	Suyzeko, China	No

Conclusion

Both 810 nm and 1070 nm wavelengths are widely used in brain photobiomodulation (PBM), and emerging evidence suggests each has distinct advantages depending on the clinical context. Numerous independent studies have focused on 810 nm, with consistent positive outcomes in mitochondrial activation, neuroprotection, and cognitive benefits. In contrast, research using the 1070 nm range—such as 1064 or 1070 nm—though less abundant, shows similar therapeutic potential and quality when conducted.

Vielight’s selection of 810 nm is rooted in its lower absorption by hemoglobin and water, enabling deeper and more efficient penetration through scalp, skull, and brain tissue than higher wavelengths like 1070 nm. Recent peer-reviewed comparisons—including work by Harvard Medical School—confirm that 810 nm reaches deeper brain structures under comparable power density conditions.

While 1064 nm and 1070 nm may offer slightly better photon scattering properties for deep tissue delivery, especially in neurological conditions, mitochondrial stimulation efficacy tends to be stronger with 810 nm, owing to its specific absorption by cytochrome c oxidase and related chromophores. That means while both wavelengths are effective, 810 nm is often seen as optimal for combining depth with bioenergetic stimulation, whereas 1064 nm 1070 nm is a reasonable alternative for the effects on calcium ions.

However, both 810 nm and 1070 nm wavelengths require strong irradiance levels to achieve therapeutic efficacy, particularly when targeting brain tissue. This is because transcranial photobiomodulation must overcome several biological barriers—including the scalp, skull, and cerebrospinal fluid—before sufficient light can reach neuronal structures. Higher irradiance (measured in mW/cm²) ensures that enough photons penetrate these layers and maintain adequate energy density at depth to activate key chromophores such as cytochrome c oxidase. Without sufficient irradiance, even an optimally chosen wavelength may fail to deliver meaningful biological effects.

References

Hale, G. M., & Querry, M. R. (1973). “Optical Constants of Water in the 200 nm to 200 µm Wavelength Region.” Applied Optics, 12(3), 555-563.
Hamblin, M. R. (2016). “Mechanisms and applications of the anti-inflammatory effects of photobiomodulation.” A comprehensive review discussing how specific wavelengths, particularly in the 800-850nm range, are absorbed by cytochrome c oxidase, leading to enhanced mitochondrial function and anti-inflammatory effects.
Dompe C, Moncrieff L, Matys J, Grzech-Leśniak K, Kocherova I, Bryja A, Bruska M. Photobiomodulation-Underlying Mechanism and Clinical Applications. J Clin Med. 2020 Jun 3;9(6):1724. doi: 10.3390/jcm9061724. PMID: 32503238; PMCID: PMC7356229.
Wu, C., Yang, L., Feng, S. et al. Therapeutic non-invasive brain treatments in Alzheimer’s disease: recent advances and challenges. Inflamm Regener 42, 31 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41232-022-00216-8
Mason MG, Nicholls P, Cooper CE. Re-evaluation of the near infrared spectra of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase: Implications for non invasive in vivo monitoring of tissues. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2014 Nov;1837(11):1882-1891. doi: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2014.08.005. Epub 2014 Aug 29. PMID: 25175349; PMCID: PMC4331044.
Huang, Y. Y., Sharma, S. K., Carroll, J., & Hamblin, M. R. (2011). “Biphasic dose response in low-level light therapy.” This study discusses the interaction between different wavelengths (including 810nm) and mitochondrial chromophores such as cytochrome c oxidase, with a focus on dose-response relationships in photobiomodulation therapy.
Rojas, J. C., & Gonzalez-Lima, F. (2011). “Low-level light therapy of the eye and brain.” This paper provides an overview of how different wavelengths, including 810nm, affect mitochondrial respiration and neurogenesis, highlighting the specificity of cytochrome c oxidase absorption and the differential effects based on wavelength.
Yuan Y, Cassano P, Pias M, Fang Q. Transcranial photobiomodulation with near-infrared light from childhood to elderliness: simulation of dosimetry. Neurophotonics. 2020 Jan;7(1):015009. doi: 10.1117/1.NPh.7.1.015009. Epub 2020 Feb 24. PMID: 32118086; PMCID: PMC7039173.
Wang, P., & Li, T. (2019). Which wavelength is optimal for transcranial low‑level laser stimulation? Journal of Biophotonics, 12(2), e201800173. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbio.201800173
Wang X, Tian F, Reddy DD, Nalawade SS, Barrett DW, Gonzalez-Lima F, Liu H. Up-regulation of cerebral cytochrome-c-oxidase and hemodynamics by transcranial infrared laser stimulation: A broadband near-infrared spectroscopy study. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2017 Dec;37(12):3789-3802. doi: 10.1177/0271678X17691783. Epub 2017 Feb 9. PMID: 28178891; PMCID: PMC5718323.
Wang Y, Huang YY, Wang Y, Lyu P, Hamblin MR. Photobiomodulation of human adipose-derived stem cells using 810nm and 980nm lasers operates via different mechanisms of action. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj. 2017 Feb;1861(2):441-449. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.10.008. Epub 2016 Oct 15. PMID: 27751953; PMCID: PMC5195895.
Hashmi, J. T., Huang, Y. Y., Osmani, B. Z., Sharma, S. K., Naeser, M. A., & Hamblin, M. R. (2010). “Role of low-level laser therapy in neurorehabilitation.” This article reviews the use of 810nm and other near-infrared wavelengths in neurorehabilitation, discussing the potential for cortical neurogenesis, anti-inflammatory effects, and the differences in penetration and cellular response between wavelengths.
Eells, J. T., Henry, M. M., Summerfelt, P., Wong-Riley, M. T., Buchmann, E. V., Kane, M., … & Whelan, H. T. (2003). “Therapeutic photobiomodulation for methanol-induced retinal toxicity.” Although focused on retinal applications, this study provides insights into how different wavelengths interact with mitochondrial function, particularly in terms of cytochrome c oxidase activation.
“Introduction to Solar Radiation”. Newport Corporation. Archived from the original on October 29, 2013.

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Safeguarding Your Brain’s Mitochondria: A Defense Against Alzheimer’s

Vielight Main — Mon, 11 Sep 2023 07:38:51 +0000

Middle school biology imparts a well-remembered fact: mitochondria are the cellular powerhouses responsible for energy production. But recent scientific findings suggest that mitochondria may also hold the key to preserving our memories and combating Alzheimer’s disease. This article explores the emerging role of mitochondria in Alzheimer’s disease, highlighting scientific research and offering insights into maintaining mitochondrial health for brain well-being.

Mitochondria and Alzheimer’s Disease

Mitochondrial Dysfunction: Scientific studies have increasingly pointed to damaged or dysfunctional mitochondria as a contributing factor to the development of Alzheimer’s disease. Healthy mitochondria are now seen as crucial for staving off cognitive decline [1].
A New Target: This discovery provides hope for the 10% to 20% of individuals who will face an Alzheimer’s diagnosis during their lifetime, as it opens up a fresh avenue of research for scientists seeking treatments and prevention strategies [1].

The History of Alzheimer’s Research

Repeated Failures: Despite over 100 years and $3.7 billion invested in Alzheimer’s research in the United States alone, there is still no cure. Historically, research has focused on beta-amyloid plaques and tau protein tangles as potential culprits, but treatments targeting these have repeatedly failed in clinical trials [2].
Ongoing Challenges: Even the most recent amyloid-targeting drug, Leqembi, which received full FDA approval, falls short of expectations, with potential risks and only marginal cognitive benefits [2].

The Mitochondrial Connection

Plaques and Tangles: Many scientists now suspect that beta-amyloid plaques and tau protein tangles may be downstream symptoms rather than the root cause of Alzheimer’s disease. Instead, they are turning their attention to mitochondrial health as a potential upstream contributor [2].
The Role of Mitochondria: Mitochondria are essential for converting food into energy and play key roles in calcium storage, cellular quality control, and heat generation. When mitochondria weaken, they produce less ATP (adenosine triphosphate), mismanage calcium ions, generate harmful reactive oxygen species, and struggle to regenerate effectively [3].

Mitochondrial Health for Brain Wellness:

Exercise and Mitochondrial Health: Regular exercise, particularly endurance training, has been shown to enhance mitochondrial activity and protect against brain atrophy. Studies with Alzheimer’s patients reveal improvements in blood flow, hippocampal thickness, neuron growth, and cognitive performance [3].
Monitoring Mitochondrial Fitness: The best metric for assessing mitochondrial fitness is VO2 max, representing the body’s maximum oxygen utilization during exercise. Fitness wearables like Fitbit and Apple Watch often provide indirect VO2 max estimates, referred to as the “cardio fitness level” [3].
Antioxidant-Rich Diet: Mitochondrial health also benefits from an antioxidant-rich diet filled with plant-based foods like blueberries, red beans, tomatoes, spinach, artichokes, and green tea. Calorie restriction and ketogenic diets have shown potential protective effects [3].
Stress Management: Chronic stress, anxiety, low social status, aggression, social defeat, and fear have been linked to mitochondrial damage in animal studies. Stress management is crucial for maintaining mitochondrial health [3].
Brain photobiomodulation: A therapeutic approach utilizing low-level light therapy, has shown promise in promoting neuronal mitochondrial health. Studies have demonstrated that near-infrared light therapy can enhance mitochondrial function by increasing the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of cells, and improving mitochondrial respiration efficiency [4]. This process is thought to reduce oxidative stress and support the overall health of neurons, which is crucial in neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer’s disease [5]. Additionally, photobiomodulation has been linked to increased neuronal survival and neuroprotective effects through mitochondrial signaling pathways [6]. While more research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms involved, these findings suggest that brain photobiomodulation holds potential as a non-invasive approach to bolstering neuronal mitochondrial health.

Conclusion

While adhering to these recommendations does not guarantee immunity from Alzheimer’s disease, the growing recognition of the role played by mitochondria offers valuable insights to researchers working towards finding effective treatments and preventive measures for this devastating condition.

References:

Swerdlow, R. H. (2018). Mitochondria and Mitochondrial Cascades in Alzheimer’s Disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 62(3), 1403-1416.
Cummings, J. L., & Tong, G. (2019). Trials of Disease-Modifying Therapies for Alzheimer’s Disease: A Review of the Influence of Patient Population and Cognitive Testing. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 15(6), 751-757.
Mattson, M. P., & Arumugam, T. V. (2018). Hallmarks of Brain Aging: Adaptive and Pathological Modification by Metabolic States. Cell Metabolism, 27(6), 1176-1199.
Johnstone, D. M., el Massri, N., Moro, C., Spana, S., Wang, X. S., & Torres, N. (2014). Indirect application of near infrared light induces neuroprotection in a mouse model of parkinsonism—An abscopal neuroprotective effect. Neuroscience, 274, 93-101.
Poyton, R. O., Ball, K. A., & Castello, P. R. (2009). Mitochondrial generation of free radicals and hypoxic signaling. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism, 20(7), 332-340.
Rojas, J. C., Bruchey, A. K., & Gonzalez-Lima, F. (2012). Low-level light therapy improves cortical metabolic capacity and memory retention. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 32(3), 741-752.

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Enhancing the Default Mode Network (DMN)

Vielight Main — Mon, 28 Nov 2022 21:43:10 +0000

Many neuroscience publications indicate that the brain is modular and composed of different networks

The key to successful brain stimulation (and brain photobiomodulation) is to focus on networks that hold the most importance to your objective.

The Default Mode Network (DMN) is a collection of brain regions that are active when an individual is at rest or not focused on the external environment. Research has linked the DMN to various cognitive functions and mental states, including:

Mind-Wandering and Daydreaming: The DMN is associated with spontaneous thoughts that occur when the mind is not focused on the task at hand. It plays a role in mind-wandering and daydreaming activities.
Self-Referential Thinking: It’s involved in self-referential thoughts, introspection, and mental simulations about oneself, such as autobiographical memory retrieval, envisioning the future, or contemplating one’s characteristics and emotions.
Social Cognition: The DMN is implicated in processes related to understanding others’ mental states, empathy, theory of mind (the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others), and social awareness.
Memory Processing: It plays a role in consolidating memories, particularly those related to personal experiences and episodic memory.
Creative Thinking: Some studies suggest that the DMN is involved in creative thinking processes, as it allows the brain to make connections between different ideas and concepts.
Mental Health Conditions: Dysfunctions in the DMN have been associated with various mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and Alzheimer’s disease. Changes in the activity or connectivity within the DMN have been observed in individuals with these conditions.

Understanding the functions of the DMN provides insights into various aspects of cognition, consciousness, and mental health. However, research in this field is ongoing, and there’s still much to learn about the exact roles and interactions of the DMN in different cognitive processes and conditions.

What is the Default Mode Network?

Figure 1 – Regions of the Default Mode Network

The Default Mode Network (DMN) is a network of highly interconnected brain regions responsible for internal modes of cognition.

The DMN has been linked to the general health of the brain and is involved in various domains of cognitive and social processing.

The term “default” initially arose from the discovery of the network’s heightened activity during idle periods (aka. when you are not actively thinking), implying that this network is active by default. Since then, additional research has shown this to be a misnomer. The DMN is also active when your brain is engaged in thinking, such as remembering one’s past or thinking about what might happen in the future.^{[41, 42, 43]}

The DMN includes hubs such as the Medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC), the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex(vMPFC), the Precuneus, the Inferior Parietal Lobule(IPL), Lateral Temporal Cortex (LTC) and the Posterior cingulate cortex(pCC). Findings from diffusion MRI and resting state fMRI show that neurons in the DMN regions are linked to each other through large tracts of axons and this causes activity in these areas to be correlated with one another. ^[22],[23]

The roles of the Default Mode Network

The Default Mode Network (DMN) plays several crucial roles concerning brain functions. Its roles are linked to what defines us as human beings from a cognitive perspective. It plays several vital tasks in memory functions, imagination, self-referencing, and socializing. Who you are as a person is theorized to be stored within these hubs.

The DMN is likely the neurological basis for the self ^[22]

Autobiographical information: Memories of collection of events and facts about one’s self
Self-reference: Referring to traits and descriptions of one’s self
Self-emotional state: Reflecting about one’s own emotional state

Thinking about others ^[23]

Theory of mind: Thinking about the thoughts of others and what they might or might not know
Emotions of other: Understanding the emotions of other people and empathizing with their feelings
Moral reasoning: Determining a just and an unjust result of an action

Remembering the past and thinking about the future ^[23]

Remembering the past: Recalling events that happened in the past
Imagining the future: Envisioning events that might happen in the future
Episodic memory: Detailed memory related to specific events in time
Story comprehension: Understanding and remembering a narrative

The Value of Targeting the Default Mode Network with Pulsed 810nm NIR energy

Since its discovery, interest has grown in the clinical utility and implications of the DMN. The clinical significance of the DMN has been established or implicated in neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. Therefore, maintaining the health and improving the performance of the DMN is of particular value. This is why the Vielight Neuro is designed to deliver NIR light transcranially using four diodes targeted at the DMN.

Dysfunction of the DMN has been associated with Alzheimer’s disease, autism, schizophrenia, depression and other neurologic diseases, Parkinson’s, ^{[25] [26]} multiple sclerosis (MS) ^[27] and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). ^[28] Targeting the DMN via PBM may therefore be an important therapeutic strategy in the treatment of these diseases. The table below summarizes the research done to date using Vielight technology for various diseases related to the DMN.

Summary of DMN findings in neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions.

Neurologic Condition	Relation to the DMN	Vielight Photobiomodulation Studies
Alzheimer’s Disease	Decreased functional connectivity between posterior and anterior portions of the DMN ^[31] Overlap between the DMN and patterns of amyloid deposits ^[32]	PBM increased connectivity between the posterior cingulate cortex and lateral parietal nodes within the default-mode network in the PBM group. ^[36] (Link) Significant improvement after 12 weeks of PBM (MMSE, p < 0.003; ADAS-cog, p < 0.023). Increased function, better sleep, fewer angry outbursts, less anxiety, and wandering were reported post-PBM. There were no negative side effects. ^[37] (Link)
Parkinson’s Disease (AD)	Coordinated activity of striatum and the DMN ^[33] Network disruptions in the DMN and CEN — heightened activation and dysfunctional connectivity ^[34]	Measures of mobility, cognition, dynamic balance and fine motor skill were significantly improved (p < 0.05) with PBM treatment for 12 weeks and up to one year. ^[38] (Link)
Traumatic Brain Injury	DMN connectivity strength predicts emotion recognition and level of social integration in TBI. ^[30]	Increased perfusion in the frontal, temporal, and occipital lobes and the hippocampus after 8 weeks of PBM treatments. ^[39] (Link) Pending publication: Department of Neurology, University of Utah for TBI/concussion with pro football players. Here is a documentary-style interview with the researchers and participants: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTxITq7j9iE&ab_channel=VielightInc
Autism Spectrum Disorder	Structural and functional disruptions to key nodes of the DMN, their connectivity with each other, and atypical patterns of connectivity with other brain regions play an important role in the symptomatology of ASD. ^[35]	tPBM was associated with a reduction in ASD severity, as shown by a decrease in CARS scores during the intervention (p < 0.001). A relevant reduction in noncompliant behavior and in parental stress have been found. Moreover, a reduction in behavioral and cognitive rigidity was reported as well as an improvement in attentional functions and in sleep quality. ^[40]

Anatomy of the DMN: roles of the hubs

The DMN is composed of several hubs that also perform their own individualized tasks.
This is an introduction to the different hubs of the DMN and what their roles are in the human brain.

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Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)

The medial prefrontal cortex is located within the brain’s frontal lobe. This region is located behind the forehead.

Figure 2- Prefrontal Cortex

The medial prefrontal cortex plays a regulatory role in several cognitive functions including attention, inhibitory control, habit formation and working, spatial and long-term memory. ^[1]

The mPFC is a common region of injury in traumatic brain injury.

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex is also located within the brain’s frontal lobe. This region is located right above the eyes and nose.

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex plays a role in decision-making, self-control, and the regulation of emotional responses. ^{[2, 3]}

It is also involved in the cognitive evaluation of morality. ^[4]

Precuneus

The precuneus is a small section of the superior parietal lobe and it is thought to be the core hub of the DMN. ^[9]

It is involved in several vital cognitive and visuospatial roles as outlined below.

Figure 3 – Precuneus

Cognitive roles:
• Self-consciousness (such as self awareness) ^[5]
• Spatial memory (remembering different locations as well as spatial relations between objects) ^[6]
• Episodic memory (remembering everyday events) ^[7]
• Source memory (remembering the origin of a memory or of knowledge) ^[8]

Visuospatial:
• Motor imagery. ^[10]Motor imagery is used in sport training as mental practice of action, neurological rehabilitation.
• Motor coordination. ^[11]
Motor coordination is the orchestrated movement of multiple body parts as required to accomplish intended actions, like running or throwing.

Inferior parietal lobule (IPL)

Figure 4 – Inferior Parietal Lobule

The inferior parietal lobule is located on the left and right side of the rear-half of the brain.

The IPL supports some of the most distinctive human mental capacities:

Language
Pattern learning
Mathematical operations ^[12]
Perception of emotions in facial stimuli

The inferior parietal lobe is a foremost convergence zone of diverse mental capacities, several of which are potentially most developed in the human species.

Targeting the IPL with PBM holds great potential to improve cognitive performance in professions that require mathematical or analytical ability.

Posterior cingulate cortex

The posterior cingulate cortex (pCC) can be found around the midline of the brain.

The pCC forms a central node in the default mode network of the brain.

Figure 5 – Posterior Cingulate Cortex

It is highly connected and communicates with various brain networks simultaneously and is involved in diverse functions. ^[13]

Cerebral blood flow and metabolic rate in the pCC are approximately 40% higher than average across the brain. ^{[14], [15]}

Memory

The pCC has been linked to:

Spatial memory (remembering different locations as well as spatial relations between objects)
Autobiographical memories (autobiographical memory is a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual’s life)
the pCC does not show this activity when affected by Alzheimer’s Disease. ^[21]
Working memory performance (abnormalities of the ventral pCC is related to a decline) ^[17]

Intrinsic control networks

The pCC has also been strongly implicated as a key part of several intrinsic control networks. ^{[14], [15]}

The dorsal attention network(control of visual attention and eye movement)
The frontoparietal control network (involved in executive motor control). ^[14]

Meditation

The pCC has been found to be activated during self-related thinking and deactivated during meditation and undistracted, effortless mind wandering. ^[20] These results track closely with findings about the role of the pCC in the DMN.

Temporal lobes

The temporal lobes (TL) sit behind the ears and are the second largest lobe.

Figure 6 – Temporal Lobes

The TL is involved in processing sensory input for:

Visual processing (complex stimuli such as faces and scenes)
Auditory processing (processes signals from the ears into meaningful units such as speech and words)
Language comprehension
Visual memory (visual memoryis the ability to remember what something looks like)

The dominant temporal lobe, which is the left side in most people, is involved in understanding language and learning and remembering verbal information.

The non-dominant lobe, which is typically the right temporal lobe, is involved in learning and remembering non-verbal information (e.g. visuo-spatial material and music).

For language learners and musicians, a well-performing temporal lobe plays a crucial role in maximizing performance in these areas.

Hippocampal area

The hippocampus can be found within the temporal lobes.

Figure 7 – Hippocampal Area

The hippocampus plays important roles in the formation of:

short-term memory to long-term memory
spatial memory that enables navigation.

In Alzheimer’s disease (and other forms of dementia), the hippocampus is one of the first regions of the brain to suffer damage ^[18] short-term memory loss and disorientation are included among the early symptoms.

While a relatively small subregion within the temporal lobes, the hippocampal area plays important roles in memory and is an region of interest in concurrent neurological research.

Conclusion: Engineering pathway for brain photobiomodulation of the DMN

At Vielight, our thesis behind the Vielight Neuro was to select the DMN and its hubs because of its and their many important roles in human cognitive processes, such as self-awareness, memory, emotions, imagination, mathematical and language processing.

Additionally, through our patented intranasal technology, we are able to reach the vMPFC with pulsed 810nm NIR energy, an advantage that is unique to the Vielight Neuro versus anything else out there.

To read more on the Vielight Neuro’s design, follow this link: https://www.vielight.com/understanding-the-vielight-neuro/

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Brain Photobiomodulation Pathways, Their Benefits and Opportunities

Vielight Main — Tue, 18 Oct 2022 14:41:46 +0000

Numerous studies conducted over the last two decades have shown the beneficial effects of photobiomodulation (PBM) on the body. Furthermore, a lot of research has been done over the last decade to better understand PBM’s effects on the brain. Today, there is a sufficient body of research-based evidence to conclude that PBM has beneficial effects on the brain. Various published, peer-reviewed studies provide solid support for such a conclusion.

This research has helped to uncover the cellular mechanisms of PBM. The majority of PBM studies have been done using constant light (no pulsation). However, more recently, studies have been conducted to scrutinize the effects of PBM using pulsed light. The effects of this type of PBM are of particular relevance to brain stimulation and modulation. Thus, research into brain-focused PBM, or transcranial photobiomodulation (tPBM), as a non-invasive brain stimulation modality is gaining interest.

As we noted, during a tPBM session, light can be pulsed to deliver pulsed transcranial photobiomodulation (PtPBM). The pulse rate usually corresponds to a particular neural oscillation frequency that is occurring in the brain naturally. The expectation from this is to attain additional benefits for the brain. These benefits can range, and they depend on the specific frequency at which the light is pulsing. As various neural oscillations are attributable to specific brain states, the pulsation of the light can help to induce a corresponding state. PtPBM is able to recruit brain’s attention. It can also help to induce various forms of learning, teaching the brain to react better to external stimuli. Most of tPBM-focused studies employed pulsed tPBM using either the alpha frequency of 10 Hz or the gamma frequency of 40 Hz.

Considering that different pulse frequencies affect brain differently, further research is needed to understand the scope of these effects better. There is a number of ongoing studies focused on benefits of tPBM for various applications. The range and scope of such studies are growing.

What cellular mechanism underlies photobiomodulation?

The benefits of cellular effects include those related to mitochondrial respiratory chain, as you will see below. Furthermore, studies also posit that tPBM helps to improve oxygenation and perfusion in the brain.

The fundamental mechanism that is thought to underly photobiomodulation (PBM) is based on its effect on Cytochrome C Oxidase (CCO), the fourth unit of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. The absorption of photons by CCO causes nitric oxide photodissociation (Lane, 2006). This event leads to an increase in electron transport activity and an increase in adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy source of cells.

Coincidently, there is an increase in production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by the mitochondria. ROS play an important role in facilitating communication among the cells, as well as support of immune response. Furthermore, the release of Ca2+, as versatile second messengers, also takes place. In turn, these processes lead to the activation of transcription factors and signaling mediators (ie. NF-κB), producing long-lasting cellular effects (de Freitas & Hamblin, 2016).

A study by Wang et al. revealed a new cellular mechanism using a longer wavelength near-infrared light. They reported activation of heat or light-sensitive calcium ion channels (Wang et al., 2017). This is important because, as crucial components of the nervous system, ion channels are necessary for the normal activity of neurons and glia.

How does photobiomodulation affect inflammation, pain, and tissue healing?

As we noted above, reactive oxygen species play a central role in the progression of inflammation. During inflammatory conditions, ROS production causes an increase in the migration of inflammatory cells to the damaged tissue. Furthermore, polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) increase ROS production at the location of inflammation. In turn, this causes dysfunction within endothelial cells and additional tissue injury.

The migration of inflammatory cells results in more injury in inflamed tissue, as well as pain, delaying the healing process (Mittal et al., 2014). PBM (with light using wavelengths greater than 500 nm) increases the production of ROS in normal cells (Chen et al.). Thus, it reduces markers of oxidative stress in stressed and damaged cells (de Freitas & Hamblin, 2016), demonstrating that photobiomodulation promotes faster healing.

Furthermore, PBM can suppress inflammation by reduction in PGE2- levels and inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in cells (Bjordal et al., 2003). Cyclooxygenase-2 is an enzyme responsible for inflammation and pain. Therefore, the appropriate dose of PBM directed to the injured tissue could positively control pain, reduce inflammation, and expedite healing.

Although the pain control mechanisms of PBM are not yet clearly understood, several theories have been proposed. The regulation of pain (Melzack & Wall, 1965), modulation of inflammation, upregulation of β-endorphin production (Laakso et al., 1994), direct inhibition of neural activity (Snyder-Mackler & Bork, 1988), and acceleration of healing are all mechanisms by which PBM is thought to control pain.

How to maximize the benefits of photobiomodulation for the brain?

Hypothetically, to maximize the benefits of photobiomodulation for the brain, you would need a sophisticated delivery method. This delivery method would account for a number of parameters like power, light power density, duration, proximity, placement and more. An example of one such delivery method would be a PBM device that can combine and deliver the benefits related to cellular processes, and those related to stimulation of neural oscillations. These are two different pathways or mechanisms that can affect neural activity and the brain overall. However, these pathways can also be combined for a more holistic effect from tPBM.

A number of published studies provide support for tPBM’s positive effects on neural activity. Animal and human studies show the benefits of both pulsed and continuous light during photobiomodulation. However, when it comes to brain-focused PBM, studies show that pulsed light can deliver more pronounced benefits.

It is possible that the added benefits of the pulsed light tPBM come from stimulation related to neural oscillations. For example, as studies show, pulsed light tPBM can upregulate or downregulate brain oscillations. Furthermore, the effect can happen on the entire frequency spectrum of neural oscillations, even if stimulation employs a single frequency.

Additional research will provide further evidence about the effects of different pulse frequencies. To advance such research, Vielight has developed the Neuro Pro, a fully customizable tPBM device with a pulse frequency range between 0 and 10,000 Hz. The Neuro Pro offers the inquisitive minds the opportunity to study how pulsed light tPBM affects the brain. The Neuro Pro allows users to do that in a large range of pulse frequencies.

Effect of pulsing light

It would be beneficial to discuss the importance of pulsing the light at a certain frequency during PBM.

A study, published by Dr. Hamblin’s Laboratory, compared the effects of the same-dose of near-infrared (NIR) light transcranial PBM (tPBM) delivered with different pulse rates. The researchers compared three tPBM parameters. One was done with continuous wave light (no pulse), one with light pulsed at 10 Hz, and one with light pulsed at 100 Hz. All three tPBM options were delivered to mice with traumatic brain injuries (TBI) (Ando et al., 2011). The study found that beneficial effects on cognitive function were statistically better with 10 Hz tPBM than they were with either a continuous wave or 100 Hz.

Another interesting animal study came from MIT, under the leadership of Li-Huei Tsai (Iaccarino et al., 2016). The study demonstrated that genetically engineered Alzheimer’s mice ended up with reduced amyloid beta after tPBM with NIR light pulsing at 40 Hz (gamma frequency). Amyloid beta is the main component of the amyloid plaques found in the brains of subjects with Alzheimer’s disease. Notably, the researchers did not see the same effect with other pulse frequencies.

Using the data from this study, we can hypothesize that amyloid beta is attenuated in the brain regions that process pulsed light at 40 Hz. Furthermore, if we could deliver 40 Hz tPBM to certain areas of the brain, such as the default mode network (DMN), it could, theoretically, be an impactful treatment for Alzheimer’s disease.

In line with this hypothesis, Vielight Inc. is currently running a clinical trial to investigate the Vielight Neuro RX Gamma device as a treatment for mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s Disease. Importantly, this pivotal clinical trial is double-blind, randomized, includes a placebo-controlled group, and involves 228 participants.

Default mode network (DMN) and brain’s resting state

Overlapping with the construct of neural oscillations is the brain’s resting state. The simplest way to define the brain’s resting state could be its readiness to act, while being in a state of rest or inaction, and consciousness.

The default mode network of the brain is associated with the state of consciousness. Referenced by the brain’s readiness to express action or will, the DMN is responsible for the brain’s resting state. The DMN consists of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), precuneus (PCu), inferior parietal lobe, lateral temporal cortex and hippocampal formation. Furthermore, studies indicated that the DMN is generally divided into two subsystems: an anterior part (aDMN) and a posterior part (pDMN).

Considering the importance of the DMN, the placement of the light-emitting LEDs in the Vielight Neuro tPBM devices covers all areas of DMN. Furthermore, the Neuro Alpha tPBM device exposes the DMN to stimulation with 810 nm near-infrared light pulsed at 10 Hz. The Neuro Gamma tPBM device exposes the DMN to stimulation with 810 nm NIR light pulsed at 40 Hz.

Research has shown that factors like posture and eye movement can influence the brain’s resting state. Thus, meditation and meditative states, where internal focus and a state of calm are prevalent factors, can be linked to the DMN. Furthermore, EEG readings can help to capture prevalent brain oscillations during meditative practices.

The Default Mode Network and dementia

The DMN network is of particular relevance for Alzheimer’s Disease. The mesial prefrontal cortex, the medial temporal lobe, and, particularly, the hippocampus (the nodes of DMN) are involved in mediating episodic memory. In Alzheimer’s Disease, impairment in episodic memory is one of the first symptoms observed (Greicius et al., 2004). Given the significant role that the DMN plays in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s Disease, it represents an important neuroanatomical target for treatment. Targeting it with transcranial photobiomodulation is a non-invasive option that is being studied.

At this point, you may be interested in looking at study examples that used NIR tPBM on DMN locations. A tPBM study on Alzheimer patients by Dr. Linda Chao demonstrated some of the benefits of tPBM. The study presented post-treatment improvements in Alzheimer’s disease scores, increased cerebral perfusion, and increased connectivity (Chao, 2019). Dr. Chao performed tPBM using Vielight Neuro Gamma devices with LEDs placed on the head, over the DMN location (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Placement of the Vielight Neuro pulsed tPBM device over the default mode network.

Another study, by Salmatche et al., tested the Vielight Neuro Alpha devices on subjects with mild to moderately severe dementia cases. They found that the subjects exhibited better sleep, fewer angry outbursts, less anxiety, and less wandering after the treatment (Saltmarche et al., 2017).

The Vielight Neuro Pro, meditation, and photobiomodulation

Practitioners who employ neurofeedback in combination with tPBM observed interesting effects of brain stimulation with pulsed tPBM. For example, with higher wave frequencies PtPBM, energy levels, focus, and arousal increase, while bodily awareness decreases. These observations point to a possibility that higher frequency PtPBM could be useful in attaining deeper and higher meditative states.

Studies suggest that long-term meditators have higher power in all wavelength ranges of brain oscillations. However, it is the higher gamma frequency range increase that is of particular interest, because it helps to attain higher level meditative states.

To better understand the effects of tPBM on meditative states, Vielight is working on a meditation study. This study will employ the Vielight Neuro Pro device. The Neuro Pro can be set to pulse the NIR light at a variety of frequencies, while a number of important tPBM variables can be customized. This customization flexibility is expected to help to investigate what effects various PtPBM protocols can produce on meditative states.

Conclusion

It is important to note that research into the effects of transcranial photobiomodulation on the brain has progressed significantly. Nevertheless, there are still many questions that need to be answered. Meanwhile, tPBM is garnering attention of more and more researchers and reputable research institutions worldwide. The depth and breadth of knowledge about its effects on the brain is expending. Thus, the understanding of tPBM pathways is growing, and it is very possible that new ones will be discovered.

The post Brain Photobiomodulation Pathways, Their Benefits and Opportunities appeared first on Vielight Inc.

Types of Brain Stimulation Technology

Vielight Main — Tue, 26 Jul 2022 09:25:50 +0000

The enhancement of human cognitive processes has long been a focus of scientific discovery. Progress in technology and research, has lead to non-invasive brain stimulation therapies playing increasingly important roles in improving neuroplasticity, brain performance, and neuromodulation.

What is non-invasive brain stimulation?

Non-invasive brain stimulation is defined as the delivery of energy through the cranium to the brain, to stimulate or improve its activity.

Over the past decade, new discoveries in neuroscience have led to a better understanding of the brain’s mechanisms and how different forms of energy can influence changes within the brain.

In this blogpost, the different energy sources used for brain stimulation will be examined along with their applications.

What are the different types of brain stimulation technologies?

Brain stimulation technologies involve activating or inhibiting the brain directly with:

Electricity (transcranial direct stimulation, tDCS)
Magnetic fields (transcranial magnetic stimulation, tMS)
Electromagnetic radiation within the 600-1100nm range (photobiomodulation, PBM)

These different types of energy sources produce different outcomes.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)

Transcranial direct stimulation involves the use of weak currents of electricity delivered via electrodes on the head. It was originally developed to help patients with brain injuries or neuropsychiatric conditions such as major depressive disorder.

tDCS works by applying a positive (anodal) or negative (cathodal) current via electrodes to an area. During stimulation, current flows between the electrodes, passing through the brain to complete the circuit. The position of the anode and cathode electrodes on the head is used to set how current flows to specific brain regions.^[1]

Mechanisms

It is hypothesized that anodal stimulation increases neuronal excitability, while cathodal stimulation produces the opposite effect. ^[2] However, the relationship between the stimulation and neural response is not dependent on just the electrode type but also the length and strength of the stimulation applied through it.^[3] Neurons throughout the cortex are not modulated in a homogenous manner. Neurons in deep cortical layers are often deactivated by anodal stimulation and activated by cathodal stimulation.^[4] Given the complexity of the brain’s electrical signaling, inconsistent outcomes of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) may originate from the anatomical differences among individuals.^[5]

Technology

tDCS devices delivers low electric current to the scalp through electrodes placed on the head. A fixed current between 1 and 2 mA is typically applied. There is usually a control panel that allows you to program the device (to set the duration and intensity of stimulation).

Figure 1. This figure denotes transcranial direct current stimulation technology delivering continuous low current stimulation by applying a positive (anodal) or negative (cathodal) current via paired electrodes over the scalp.

Set-up

A standard tDCS set-up uses a target and a reference electrode. First, the desired locations of where the electrodes will be positioned are determined. Saline solution, conductive paste or EEG gel are used to affix the electrodes to the scalp and distribute the current. The participant’s hair should be parted to ensure good contact between scalp and electrode. Electrodes are then attached to the stimulator using wires connected to corresponding anodal/cathodal ports.

Outcomes

Research shows increasing evidence for tDCS as a treatment for depression.^{[6, 7, 8]} There is mixed evidence about whether tDCS is useful for cognitive enhancement in healthy people. There is no strong evidence that tDCS is useful for memory deficits in Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive procedure that uses magnetic fields generated through electrical currents passing through an electromagnetic coil. The magnetic field then delivers electrical current into the brain through induction stimulate nerve cells in the brain.

Mechanisms

At present, the mechanisms of TMS is not well understood. What is known is the current produced is above the threshold needed to make a neuron activate. When the coil is placed on the motor cortex, TMS makes the cells in the motor cortex active, enough to make a finger twitch.

Some studies have proposed the activation of neurotransmitter systems as a working mechanistic model.^[9]

Technology

TMS equipment usually consists of a small electromagnetic coil and a computer which controls the frequency and power output.

Figure 2: TMS machines deliver electrical currents into the brain through induction from an electromagnetic coil.

Transcranial Photobiomodulation (tPBM)

Transcranial photobiomodulation or brain photobiomodulation is a newer field of brain stimulation that uses LEDs or lasers to deliver light energy in the near-infrared to far-infrared (800 – 1000+ nm) wavelengths to the brain.

Mechanisms

Brain photobiomodulation (PBM) utilizes red to near-infrared (NIR) photons to stimulate the cytochrome c oxidase enzyme of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Cytochrome c oxidase is receptive to light energy. This results in an increase in ATP synthesis, leading to the generation of more cellular energy. Additionally, photon absorption by ion channels results in release of Ca²⁺ which leads to the activation of transcription factors and gene expression.

Published study (May 2022) using the Vielight Neuro Alpha on how neurons and cellular components such as microtubules and tubulin respond to near-infrared PBM.
Published study (April 2019) using the Vielight Neuro Gamma on how near-infrared PBM could positively cognition, memory consolidation and mental energy.

Figure 3 Mechanisms of photobiomodulation

Therapeutic Outcomes of Brain Photobiomodulation: CCO upregulation

The absorption of red to NIR photons by mitochondria CCO triggers a series of cellular and physiological effects occur in the brain, also known as CCO upregulation.

CCO upregulation leads to:

A small increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS), which activate mitochondrial signaling pathways linked to neuroprotection.^[13]
An increase in nitric oxide (NO) which stimulate vasodilation and cerebral blood flow.^[14]
An increase in ATP production^[15]
Combined, these effects trigger and improve the activation of signaling pathways and transcription factors that modulate the long-term expression of various proteins and metabolic pathways in the brain.[6] Additionally, electrophysiological effects on the human brain have also been demonstrated by PBM in older people.^{[16, 17]}

Metabolic effects and brain oxygenation

The metabolic effects of PBM in the elderly have been shown to increase cerebral blood flow (CBF) due to the increase in CCO activity, leading to an increase in brain oxygenation. Photobiomodulation of the prefrontal cortex was able to increase the resting-state EEG alpha, beta and gamma power, and more efficient prefrontal fMRI response, facilitating cognitive processing in the elderly. ^[18] Additionally, photobiomodulation of the Default Mode Network (DMN) has also been shown to increase cerebral perfusion due to an increase in mitochondrial activity. ^[19]

Brain PBM and anti-inflammatory effects

In addition to the above findings, PBM may be a promising strategy for improving aging brains because of its anti-inflammatory effects. ^{[20, 21]}

Brain PBM leads to a reduction in neuronal excitotoxicity

In 2022, researchers from the University of Alberta published a multi-layered study investigating the way that living cells, cellular structures, and components such as microtubules and tubulin respond to near-infrared photobiomodulation (NIR PBM) using the Vielight Neuro Alpha.

Their study showed that PBM balances excitatory stimulation with inhibition, indicating that PBM may reduce excitotoxicity which is relevant to the maintenance of a healthy brain. This study also showed that low-intensity PBM upregulates mitochondrial potential and improves physiological brain functions impaired due to trauma or neurodegeneration. ^[22]

Brain PBM increases cerebral vascularity and oxygenation

Aging is accompanied by changes in tissue structure, often resulting in functional decline. The blood vessels within the brain are no exception. As one ages, a decrease in blood flow to the brain is caused by a loss of cerebral vascularity, leading to cognitive decline when neurons cannot obtain sufficient oxygen.^[23] Brain photobiomodulation has also been shown to increase cerebral blood flow due to the vasodilation that occurs after the release of nitric oxide.^[24]

Figure 4 Therapeutic outcomes of photobiomodulation

Technology

Brain photobiomodulation devices consist of either headsets or helmets that position LEDs or laser diodes over the cranium.

The diodes need to generate enough power with proper wavelengths to penetrate the skull. There’s little utility in generating a lot of total power if none of it reaches the brain.

There are several aspects of brain photobiomodulation devices that users need to be aware of.

Penetration

Figure 5 Penetration of Neuro LEDs through the cranium and nasal area.

Brain photobiomodulation devices should be designed for maximum transmission of light energy safely without generating heat.

That can be accomplished through maximizing contact with the scalp. For example, the Vielight Neuro’s headset’s LED modules were designed to maximize contact with the scalp. Additionally, the headset design ensures that heat isn’t trapped.

Wavelength

The accepted wavelength range for brain photobiomodulation is within the NIR to far infrared range.

The near infrared (NIR) range in the electromagnetic spectrum has a theoretical maximum depth of penetration in tissue.

Figure 6 The optical window
Image source: Wang, Erica & Kaur, Ramanjot & Fierro, Manuel & Austin, Evan & Jones, Linda & Jagdeo, Jared. (2019).
Safety and penetration of light into the brain. 10.1016/B978-0-12-815305-5.00005-1.

Visible light (wavelength 400 to 700 nm) is substantially absorbed by hemoglobin and other organic matter. On the other hand, absorption by water increases at wavelengths longer than near infrared light (1000+nm). This implies that wavelengths outside of the near-infrared window cannot easily penetrate deeply through tissue.

References

Thair H, Holloway AL, Newport R, Smith AD. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS): A Beginner’s Guide for Design and Implementation. Front Neurosci. 2017;11:641. Published 2017 Nov 22. doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00641
Cambiaghi M, Velikova S, Gonzalez-Rosa JJ, Cursi M, Comi G, Leocani L. (2010). Brain transcranial direct current stimulation modulates motor excitability in mice. Eur J Neurosci 31:704–709.
Roche, M. Geiger, B. Bussel, Mechanisms underlying transcranial direct current stimulation in rehabilitation, Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine, Volume 58, Issue 4, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rehab.2015.04.009
P. Purpura, J.G. McMurtry, Intracellular activities and evoked potential changes during polarization of motor cortex, J Neurophysiol, 28 (1965), pp. 166-185
Kim JH, Kim DW, Chang WH, Kim YH, Im CH. Inconsistent outcomes of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) may be originated from the anatomical differences among individuals: a simulation study using individual MRI data. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2013;2013:823-5. doi: 10.1109/EMBC.2013.6609627. PMID: 24109814.
Brunoni AR, Moffa AH, Fregni F, Palm U, Padberg F, Blumberger DM, Daskalakis ZJ, Bennabi D, Haffen E, Alonzo A, Loo CK (2016). “Transcranial direct current stimulation for acute major depressive episodes: meta-analysis of individual patient data”. doi:1192/bjp.bp.115.164715.

Julian Mutz, Vijeinika Vipulananthan, Ben Carter, René Hurlemann, Cynthia H Y Fu, Allan H Young (2019). “Comparative efficacy and acceptability of non-surgical brain stimulation for the acute treatment of major depressive episodes in adults: systematic review and network meta-analysis”. BMJ. 364: l1079. doi:10.1136/bmj.l1079
“Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for depression”. NICE. August 2015. Retrieved 10 November 2015.

Peng Z, Zhou C, Xue S, Bai J, Yu S, Li X, Wang H, Tan Q. Mechanism of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Depression. Shanghai Arch Psychiatry. 2018 Apr 25;30(2):84-92. doi: 10.11919/j.issn.1002-0829.217047. PMID: 29736128; PMCID: PMC5936045.
Smith, Andrew M.; Mancini, Michael C.; Nie, Shuming (2009). “Bioimaging: Second window for in vivo imaging”. Nature Nanotechnology. 4(11): 710–711. doi:1038/nnano.2009.326. ISSN 1748-3387. PMC 2862008
Jang, J. Y., Blum, A., Liu, J., & Finkel, T. (2018). The role of mitochondria in aging. The Journal of clinical investigation, 128(9), 3662–3670. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI120842
Dompe, C., Moncrieff, L., Matys, J., Grzech-Leśniak, K., Kocherova, I., Bryja, A., Bruska, M., Dominiak, M., Mozdziak, P., Skiba, T., Shibli, J. A., Angelova Volponi, A., Kempisty, B., & Dyszkiewicz-Konwińska, M. (2020). Photobiomodulation-Underlying Mechanism and Clinical Applications. Journal of clinical medicine, 9(6), 1724. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9061724
Suski, J. M., Lebiedzinska, M., Bonora, M., Pinton, P., Duszynski, J., & Wieckowski, M. R. (2012). Relation between mitochondrial membrane potential and ROS formation. In Mitochondrial bioenergetics (pp. 183-205). Humana Press.
Wang X., Tian F., Soni S.S., Gonzalez-Lima F., Liu H. Interplay between up-regulation of cytochrome-c-oxidase and hemoglobin oxygenation induced by near-infrared laser. Sci. Rep. 2016;6:30540. doi: 10.1038/srep30540.
Hamblin M.R. Photobiomodulation for traumatic brain injury and stroke. J. Neurosci. Res. 2018;96:731–743. doi: 10.1002/jnr.24190.
Cardoso FDS, Mansur FCB, Lopes-Martins RÁB, Gonzalez-Lima F, Gomes da Silva S. Transcranial Laser Photobiomodulation Improves Intracellular Signaling Linked to Cell Survival, Memory and Glucose Metabolism in the Aged Brain: A Preliminary Study. Front Cell Neurosci. 2021 Sep 3;15:683127. doi: 10.3389/fncel.2021.683127. PMID: 34539346; PMCID: PMC8446546.
Wang, X., Dmochowski, J. P., Zeng, L., Kallioniemi, E., Husain, M., GonzalezLima, F., & Liu, H. (2019). Transcranial photobiomodulation with 1064-nm laser modulates brain electroencephalogram rhythms. Neurophotonics, 6(2), 025013.
Vargas E, Barrett DW, Saucedo CL, et al. Beneficial neurocognitive effects of transcranial laser in older adults. Lasers in medical science. 2017;32(5):1153–1162. [PubMed: 28466195]
Chao LL. Effects of Home Photobiomodulation Treatments on Cognitive and Behavioral Function, Cerebral Perfusion, and Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Patients with Dementia: A Pilot Trial. Photobiomodul Photomed Laser Surg. 2019 Mar;37(3):133-141. doi: 10.1089/photob.2018.4555. Epub 2019 Feb 13. PMID: 31050950.
Hamblin MR. Mechanisms and applications of the anti-inflammatory effects of photobiomodulation. AIMS Biophys. 2017;4(3):337-361. doi: 10.3934/biophy.2017.3.337. Epub 2017 May 19. PMID: 28748217; PMCID: PMC5523874.
dos Santos Cardoso, F., Mansur, F.C.B., Araújo, B.H.S. et al.Photobiomodulation Improves the Inflammatory Response and Intracellular Signaling Proteins Linked to Vascular Function and Cell Survival in the Brain of Aged Rats. Mol Neurobiol 59, 420–428 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-021-02606-4
Staelens Michael, Di Gregorio Elisabetta, Kalra Aarat P., Le Hoa T., Hosseinkhah Nazanin, Karimpoor Mahroo, Lim Lew, Tuszyński Jack A. Near-Infrared Photobiomodulation of Living Cells, Tubulin, and Microtubules In Vitro, Frontiers in Medical Technology 4. 2022 May 04, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmedt.2022.871196, ISBN:2673-3129
Salgado AS, Zângaro RA, Parreira RB, Kerppers II. The effects of transcranial LED therapy (TCLT) on cerebral blood flow in the elderly women. Lasers in medical science. 2015;30(1):339– 346. doi: 10.1007/s10103-014-1669-2 [PubMed: 25277249]
Yang T, Sun Y, Lu Z, Leak RK, Zhang F. The impact of cerebrovascular aging on vascular cognitive impairment and dementia. Ageing Res Rev. 2017 Mar;34:15-29. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2016.09.007. Epub 2016 Sep 28. PMID: 27693240; PMCID: PMC5250548.

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Education – Vielight Inc

Illuminating the Brain | The Vielight Neuro’s Energy Footprint | Full Transcranial-Intranasal Footprint

What “energy footprint” means

Why Five Vie-LEDs provide full Transcranial Coverage

DMN 1

DMN‑Focused Geometry (With full transcranial PBM)

The Neuro Pro 2: Higher Intensity & Programmable Network Targeting

The Intranasal Channel: Reaching Ventral Brain Structures

Pathway to the Olfactory Bulb and vmPFC

Seeing is Believing: CMOS Smartphone Photonic Detection

A Quick Tour of the Physics (In Brief)

Limitations & Next Steps

Conclusion

What is Vie-LED® Technology? The Importance of Irradiance

High Irradiance, Minimal Heat – A Rare Engineering Achievement

Visual Proof: Near-Infrared Light Penetrating the Skull with Vielight Neuro 4

What About Devices With More LEDs?

Clinically Validated — Backed by Over 20 Published Clinical Studies

Why Vie-LED Matters for You

Are Neurons extra sensitive to light energy?

Are Neurons Extra Sensitive to Light Energy?

What is Photobiomodulation?

Why Neurons Might Be More Sensitive

Supporting Evidence

1. Improved Cognitive Function

2. Neuroprotection After Injury

3. Functional Imaging Studies

4. Applications in Neurodegenerative Disorders

Can Light Really Reach the Brain?

Visual Proof: Near-Infrared Light Penetrating the Skull with Vielight Neuro 4

Conclusion

References

Vielight Vagus: Scientific Foundations and Applications of Vagus Nerve Stimulation

Introduction

Disclaimer

Device Overview

Early Experimental Outcomes

Scientific Rationale and Mechanisms of Action

Foundational Mechanisms

Distinct from Electrical Stimulation

Potentially Shared Outcomes

Other Advantages of the Vielight Vagus

Helpful PBM Mechanisms of Action

Future VNS Applications for PBM Investigation

Conclusion

References

Is 810nm or 1064nm (1070nm) better for brain photobiomodulation?

Is the 810 nm or 1064 nm (1070 nm) wavelength better?

Does 810 nm or 1064 nm (1070nm) penetrate deeper into the brain?

Visual Proof: Near-Infrared Light Penetrating the Skull with Vielight Neuro 4

Differences in cellular effects between 810nm and 1070nm

810nm has a stronger effect on mitochondria, cytochrome C oxidase (CCO)

Mitochondrial Activation

Neurogenesis

Why mitochondria absorbs 810 nm more than 1064 nm (1070nm)

1. Spectral absorption properties of cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) within mitochondria

2. Reduced photon availability at 1064 nm (1070 nm)

Why calcium ion channels absorb more 1064 nm (1070nm) versus 810 nm

Research validation of 810nm LEDs vs lasers

Wavelength alone isn’t enough – irradiance matters.

Key Concepts:

A Comparative Snapshot

Irradiance / Power Density Comparison

Number of published clinical studies

Conclusion

References

Safeguarding Your Brain’s Mitochondria: A Defense Against Alzheimer’s

Mitochondria and Alzheimer’s Disease

The History of Alzheimer’s Research

The Mitochondrial Connection

Mitochondrial Health for Brain Wellness:

Conclusion

Enhancing the Default Mode Network (DMN)

What is the Default Mode Network?

The roles of the Default Mode Network

The Value of Targeting the Default Mode Network with Pulsed 810nm NIR energy

Summary of DMN findings in neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions.

Anatomy of the DMN: roles of the hubs

Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)

Why mitochondria absorbs 810 nm more than 1064 nm (1070nm)

2. Reduced photon availability at 1064 nm (1070 nm)

Why calcium ion channels absorb more 1064 nm (1070nm) versus 810 nm